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Deaf awareness: Communication made simple

People who experience hearing loss can feel isolated and alone. It is important that the hearing public understand how to interact with deaf people and those who are hard of hearing. It is not difficult to adapt communication, but for those on the receiving end, it can be a breath of fresh air.

Deaf awareness is not complicated, but it is important.
An estimated 15 percent of Americans (37.5 million) have some degree of hearing loss.

Based on standard hearing examinations, approximately 1 in 8 people in the United States over the age of 12 have some degree of hearing loss in both ears.

Around 28.8 million adults in the U.S. could benefit from using hearing aids.

Because hearing problems are, by their nature, invisible, the figures above might seem surprisingly high.

As with many types of disability, some people can feel unsure about the best way to communicate and shy away.

In reality, there is nothing to be concerned about. By following some of the basic best practices outlined below, communication with someone who has any level of hearing loss can be smooth for both parties.

Whether you are a medical professional, lawyer, student, office worker, or cashier, you are guaranteed to meet someone with hearing difficulties; making sure the communication process is simple and stress-free will benefit everyone involved.

Hearing loss and loneliness
Losing one's hearing may cause some people to feel disconnected and lonely. For instance, a study published in 2015 set out to investigate the reasons for loneliness in older adults (aged 50-94) being treated for hearing loss.

The researchers found that the younger individuals with the greatest degree of hearing loss felt the most lonely. One of the major factors involved in this was difficulties in communication.

Another study, published in 2014, concluded that: "Greater hearing loss is associated with increased odds of being socially isolated in a nationally representative sample of women aged 60 to 69 years."

These findings underscore the importance of deaf awareness. By understanding the challenges and ensuring communication is easy, any individual who feels isolated is given the opportunity to feel included.

Below are a few things to consider when communicating with someone who is deaf or hard of hearing.

Faces, distractions, and emotions
This might sound obvious, but do not begin talking if the individual is not looking at you; in conversation with hearing people, we often talk before we have someone's attention. The sound of your voice signals the start of an interaction. However, if someone is reliant on facial expressions and lipreading to communicate, they will be on the back foot if they turn around and you are already mid-sentence.

While talking, make sure not to turn away; again, this might be an obvious point, but it is worth remembering that if a person who relies on lipreading cannot see your mouth, it will be very difficult for them to follow the conversation. Maintain eye contact.

Don't cover your mouth - as above, this might seem like a no-brainer, but in daily conversation, we often cover our mouths partially, or in passing, as we speak.

Be aware of your face and keep it clear of distractions. Similarly, wearing distracting jewelry around the face or a particularly loud shirt, playing with your hair, or fiddling with buttons can take some of the emphasis away from the face.

Use facial expressions to show emotions - because someone who is deaf will not benefit from changes in the intonation of your voice, they rely on facial expressions to gauge the emotional content of a conversation.

There is no need to become an actor, but if you are saying something positive, smile and vice versa.

It is important to note that, just because someone is wearing hearing aids, it does not mean that they can hear everything in the same way that you can. Depending on the level of hearing loss, individuals receive a varied spectrum of sound.Using your voice
Use a normal speaking pace - some people increase their talking rate when they are nervous, others might assume that speaking very slowly will be helpful.


The key is to speak as you normally would.
In reality, lipreaders learn to read the lips of people who are speaking at a standard pace. If the pace is too fast or too slow, it can be harder to understand.

Don't exaggerate lip movements - it is tempting to think that by exaggerating the movements of the mouth, it will help make words seem clearer. The opposite is true.

As above, deaf people are used to reading the lips of people speaking naturally, not dragging out their words. And, of course, try not to mumble for the same reasons.

Don't shout - if someone is profoundly deaf, no amount of volume will make your words audible; if someone is using hearing aids, shouting can be painful and the sound can become distorted. Also, it is difficult to shout without coming across as aggressive.

In conversation, we all use verbal nods such as "uh huh." These are, of course, inaudible and should be replaced by a nod and a smile when we understand. This confirmation will build confidence in both directions.

Choosing the environment
When hearing people have a conversation, they might choose to stand in a location that is not too loud. In the same way, people who are hard of hearing will appreciate a quieter location. The human brain is a master at filtering out the most important sounds in an environment. Hearing aids do not always afford the same level of filtering, making a noisy location very difficult to communicate in.

Other than noise, lighting is also important. For instance, if a strong light is positioned behind you, the other person will have to strain to make out the subtle movements of your mouth and face. It is best to make sure that your face is well lit.

If you are in a dark room, put a light on; if the sun is in the other person's eyes, switch positions.

Visually distracting environments can make it hard for a lipreader to focus on the speaker. If cars are speeding past, if groups of children are moving between you, if there is any type of mass distraction, communication will become more difficult.

Lipreading takes an incredible amount of mental energy, it is important that this energy is not wasted on trying to ignore extraneous information.General conversational tips
Gaining attention - before beginning to speak, make sure to get the other person's attention, perhaps by tapping them on their arm or waving.

Someone who is hard of hearing relies on the context of a conversation to make assumptions about the topic and content. Because not every word can be picked up, a lot of effort goes into second guessing and building a picture of the conversation without explicitly "hearing" each word.

Get to the point - When speaking with someone who is deaf or hard of hearing, try to get to the point and use plain language. For instance, in a conversation with a hearing friend we might say something like "if you feel like it, or if you aren't too busy, later today, or perhaps tomorrow, we could maybe get together and go to the mall?"


Be clear. Be concise.
The meaning of that sentence only becomes clear at the end. For someone who is lipreading, this is a great deal of extra work for no good reason. Instead, say "would you like to go to the mall today or tomorrow?"

Don't all speak at once - when hearing people have a discussion in a group, more than one person might speak at the same time or, at least, overlap.

For people who can hear, this is no problem, but if someone is heavily reliant on visual aspects of communication, this can be very difficult to follow.

Individuals with hearing aids may also struggle in these situations; we take it for granted that we can pinpoint the location of a sound in space with ease, but this is a highly technical ability that the hearing aid cannot fully replicate.

Because it is more difficult to gauge where a sound is coming from, if everyone speaks at once, a conversation will be tough to follow.

Also, switching topics without warning can be confusing. Make sure that the other person has understood before moving on.

The most important tip is this - don't give up. If you think that you are not being understood, don't just stop making an effort. Keep trying, but don't simply repeat the same words over and over again - rephrase it, say it in a different way.

If you end up saying "oh, don't worry, it doesn't matter" it feels like you mean "you don't matter."

If you panic, you may both panic, and a level of understanding is less likely to be achieved. If you feel you are stuck, using a pen and paper can be very useful, or typing a word or phrase into your phone can be a simple way to ensure everyone is on the same page.

Dieting success may be hardwired into the brain

Obesity and dieting are increasingly common in contemporary society, and many dieters struggle to lose excess weight. A new research paper, by Chen et al in Cognitive Neuroscience, studied the connections between the executive control and reward systems in the brain, and discovered the ability to self-regulate a healthy body weight may be dependent on individual brain structure. The findings show that dieting success may be easier for some people because they have an improved white matter pathway connecting the executive control and reward systems in their brain.

Chronic dieters are known to show excessive reactions to food cues in executive control and reward areas of the brain, in addition to having depleted cognitive control and over-rewarding with high calorie foods in real life situations. Chen et al took a group of thirty six chronic dieters, with mean body fat of 29.6%, and asked them to make simple judgements on images in order to divert their attention from the real aim of the task. The activity carried out was a food cue reactivity task designed to localise the executive control and reward areas in the brain, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). After localizing the executive control and reward areas, Chen et al used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to identify the white matter track connecting these areas in order to quantify the integrity within this tract.

The fMRI results demonstrated that dieters showed greater reactivity to food images than control images. The DTI results further showed that those with lower body fat percentages showed greater white matter integrity between executive control and reward areas of the brain. The findings support their hypothesis that structural integrity connecting the two centres relates to individual differences in body fat and is an indication of dieting success. The authors state, "Individuals with reduced integrity may have difficulty in overriding rewarding temptations, leading to a greater chance of becoming obese than those with higher structural integrity."

The authors urge future continued longitudinal research to establish whether repetitive dieting in itself could cause alteration in white matter integrity, exacerbate the executive control and reward communications and result in more entrenched obesity for the individual.

Teenagers influenced by video games with alcohol, smoking content

Experts from the UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies at The University of Nottingham have carried out the first ever analysis of best-selling video games to find out the extent to which the games include this content and to assess the link between playing the games and drinking and smoking behaviour.

They found that teenagers who play video games featuring alcohol and tobacco references appeared to be directly influenced because they were twice as likely to have tried smoking or drinking themselves.

The research examined the content of 32 UK best-selling video games of 2012/2013 and carried out a large online survey of adolescents playing games with alcohol and tobacco content. An analysis of 'cut scenes' uploaded by gamers to YouTube from the five most popular games was also carried out. All the games studied were from the genres of stealth, action adventure, open world, shooter and survival/horror because they involve avatars that look and act like real people.

The study, published in the journal Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, found alcohol and tobacco content in 44% of the most popular video games. They also found this content was not reported by the official regulator, the Pan-European Games Information (PEGI) system which informs the Video Standards Council age ratings that help parents decide whether game content is suitable for their children.

The researchers used YouGov survey tools to ask 1,094 UK adolescents aged 11-17 whether they had played any of the most popular video games identified as containing either tobacco or alcohol imagery. They were also asked whether and to what extent they smoked or drank alcohol. The study found that adolescents who had played at least one game with tobacco or alcohol content were twice as likely to have tried smoking or consumed alcohol themselves.

Out of the top five most popular games, Grand Theft Auto V & VI contained the highest level of alcohol and smoking content using fictitious brands only. The other top games containing these references were Call of Duty:Black Ops II, Call of Duty:Modern Warfare 3 and Assassin's Creed III. There was no electronic cigarette content.

Psychologist Dr Joanne Cranwell from the UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies, said "Although around 54% of UK adolescents play video games online, parental concern over exposure to inappropriate content while playing video games seems to be lower than for other media, like movies for example. While 80% of children aged 10-15 play packaged or online video games with an age rating higher than their age, more than half of British parents are unaware of the harmful content this exposes them to.

"Video games are clearly attractive to adolescents regardless of age classification. It appears that official PEGI content descriptors are failing to restrict youth access to age inappropriate content. We think that the PEGI system needs to include both alcohol and tobacco in their content descriptors. Also, game developers could be offered incentives to reduce the amount of smoking and drinking in their games or to at least reference smoking and drinking on their packaging and websites.

"As a child protection method it is naïve for both the games industry and the Interactive Software Federation of Europe, who regulate the PEGI system, to rely on age ratings alone. Future research should focus on identifying the levels of exposure in terms of dose that youth gamers are exposed to during actual gameplay and the effects of this on long- term alcohol and smoking behaviour."

Stronger muscles lead to stronger brain

study led by the University of Sydney in Australia has found that gradually increasing muscle strength through activities such as weightlifting improves cognitive function. Stronger muscles reduce cognitive impairment in elderly patients. The study was conducted in collaboration with the Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA) at the University of New South Wales and the University of Adelaide. The results have been published in the Journal of American Geriatrics. The trial involved a Study of Mental and Resistance Training (SMART) carried out on patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) between 55-68 years old. Patients with MCI have a higher risk of developing dementia and Alzheimer's disease. The findings are particularly significant given the high incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease among the aging population. According to the 2016 World Alzheimer Report, 47 million people worldwide have dementia and this number is expected to triple by 2050. In the United States, the figure predicted for people with Alzheimer's disease in 2050 is 13.8 million. Due to the high cost of care for patients with dementia, the World Alzheimer Report recommends moving beyond specialist care. The report suggests a holistic approach that focuses on improving the quality of life for people living with the condition. Seen in this context, a link between physical training and improving brain function might be a step in the right direction. How a disciplined weightlifting schedule can improve cognition The trial looked at progressive resistance training - such as weightlifting - and the functioning of the brain. The study examined 100 older adults living with MCI. "Mild cognitive impairment" refers to older patients who have cognitive difficulties that are noticeable but not significant enough to interfere with their daily activities. Eighty percent of patients diagnosed with MCI develop Alzheimer's disease after approximately 6 years. For the trial, MCI patients were divided into four groups and assigned a range of activities. These included a combination of resistance exercise - including weightlifting - and placebo resistance in the form of seated stretching. Activities also included computerized cognitive training and its placebo equivalent. The cognitive training and placebo activities did not yield cognitive improvements. However, the study did demonstrate a proportional relation between improvement in brain function and improvement in muscle strength. "What we found in this follow-up study is that the improvement in cognition function was related to their muscle strength gains. The stronger people became, the greater the benefit for their brain." Lead author Dr. Yorgi Mavros Previous studies have shown a positive link between physical exercise and cognitive function, but the SMART trial led by Dr. Mavros provides further information on the type, quality, and frequency of exercise needed to get the full cognitive benefits. In the trial, participants did weightlifting sessions twice a week for 6 months, working to at least 80 percent of their peak strength. The weights were gradually increased as participants got stronger, all the while maintaining their peak strength at 80 percent. "The more we can get people doing resistance training like weightlifting, the more likely we are to have a healthier aging population," says Dr. Mavros. "The key, however, is to make sure you are doing it frequently, at least twice a week, and at a high intensity so that you are maximizing your strength gains. This will give you the maximum benefit for your brain." This is also the first time a study has shown a clear causal link between increasing muscle strength and improving brain function in patients over 55 years old who have MCI. Exercise and cognitive function It has been suggested that exercise indirectly helps prevent the onset of Alzheimer's disease and lowers the risk of cognitive impairment. Exercise helps with physiological.

Mom holds separated twin for first time

In what can best be described as a bundle of cuteness, Nicole McDonald held her son Jadon alone for the first time. The mother described it as "one of the most profound moments of my life." Mom grinned from ear to ear as she cradled the young boy Friday afternoon at a New York hospital, mesmerized by the gaze of his deep brown eyes. The precious moment came shortly after doctors removed Jadon's breathing tube, and it came one week after the 27-hour surgery to separate Jadon and his brother Anias, 13-month-old twins who were born conjoined at the head. Nicole clutched Jadon for two hours, cherishing every lasting second. She had told CNN before the surgery that holding her two boys was the thing she longed for most. "There's nothing harder than watching your child cry and not being able to pick them up," she had said. "To hear them cry and react to it in a motherly way is something I'm really excited for."

Managing your weight for conception

So you have decided that you want to have a baby; maybe you just got married or you want another kid or you have been trying for a while with no success. Whatever the reason, please know that being underweight or overweight can make conception more difficult. When you are overweight, the fat cells produce and release high levels of oestrogen which impede the production of a very important hormone called the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). FSH is required for ovulation (the release of the egg for fertilisation). When no egg is released, fertilisation cannot occur and there’s no baby. When you are underweight, the opposite happens, the body produces less hormones than is needed and again ovulation is affected. In order to know if you are overweight, underweight or normal weight, please calculate your Body Mass Index (BMI). You can do this by dividing your weight by your height squared. So if you weigh 63kg and are 1.57 metres tall, your BMI is 63 divided by 1.57x 1.57 = 25.56 BMI is classified as follows: Less than 19 = underweight. 19 -24 = normal weight, 25 – 29 = overweight, 30 – 39 = obese. Whether you have to gain or lose some weight depends on the results of your own BMI calculation. In the example above, the person is slightly overweight. If you are underweight, now is not the time to indulge in fatty and sugary foods to gain weight nor is it a time to go on a crash diet to lose weight. Everyone is still required to maintain a healthy and balanced diet to remain in good health and facilitate conception. I’ll encourage you to determine your BMI. In my next article, I’ll go into more details on how to achieve or maintain the best weight for conception. Until then, take care and stay healthy.

HIV cure on the horizon

Researchers are hopeful of a cure for HIV after treating the first patient with a promising new treatment that could kill all traces of the virus. A partnership sparked by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) is behind this collaborative UK effort for the new treatment, which is a first-of-its-kind. Sarah Fidler, Professor of HIV and Communicable Diseases at Imperial College London and co-Principal Investigator on the study, said: “This first participant has now completed the intervention and we have found it to be safe and well tolerated. Only when all 50 study participants have completed the whole study, by 2018, will we be able to tell if there has been an effect on curing HIV.” Prof Jonathan Weber, Chair of CHERUB Scientific Steering Committee and Director of Research for the Faculty of Medicine at Imperial College London, said: “CHERUB has made great progress since it was born six years ago. We are now actively recruiting patients to test the ‘Kick and Kill’ theory. “NOCRI was instrumental to this research starting. We are all thoroughly committed to finding a cure for HIV, but if the collaboration between this set of HIV researchers had not been prompted at that meeting six years ago, this simply would not have happened.”

Stroke risk higher for younger than older pregnant women

Researchers found that pregnant older women had a similar stroke risk as their non-pregnant counterparts, while younger pregnant women were found to be at more than double the risk of stroke than non-pregnant women of the same age. Lead study author Dr. Eliza C. Miller, of the Department of Neurology at Columbia University Medical Center (CUMC) in New York, and team published their findings in JAMA Neurology. Each year, around 795,000 people in the United States are affected by stroke, and it is the cause of more than 130,000 deaths. It is well known that pregnancy can raise stroke risk; gestational diabetes , high blood pressure, and increased bleeding after birth are all factors that can make expectant mothers more susceptible to stroke. According to Dr. Miller and colleagues, stroke affects around 34 in every 100,000 pregnancies in the United States, and this number is on the increase. "The incidence of pregnancy-associated strokes is rising, and that could be explained by the fact that more women are delaying childbearing until they are older, when the overall risk of stroke is higher," notes senior study author Dr. Joshua Z. Willey, assistant professor of neurology at CUMC. "However," he adds. "very few studies have compared the incidence of stroke in pregnant and non-pregnant women who are the same age." Assessing stroke risk by age at pregnancy For their study, Dr. Miller and team set out to determine the risk of stroke during pregnancy by age. Using data from the New York State Department of Health Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System (SPARCS) inpatient database, the researchers were able to pinpoint 19,146 women in New York State aged 12-55 years who had been hospitalized for stroke between 2003-2012. Of these women, 797 (4.2 percent) were pregnant or had given birth in the last 6 weeks. The researchers looked at the incidence of stroke for both pregnant and non-pregnant women across four age groups: 12-24 years, 25-34 years, 35-44 years, and 45-55 years. Overall, the team found that stroke incidence increased with age; there were 14 stroke events per 100,000 pregnant or postpartum women aged 12-24, while the stroke events for pregnant or postpartum women aged 45-55 were 46.9 per 100,000. Stroke risk doubled for younger expectant mothers However, when it came to assessing stroke risk relative to non-pregnant women, the team found younger women fared worse. For women aged 12-24, the researchers identified 14 stroke events per 100,000 pregnant or postpartum women, compared with 6.4 per 100,000 for women aged 12-24 who were not pregnant - representing a more than twofold greater risk of stroke for expectant or new mothers. Among women aged 25-34, pregnant or postpartum women were 1.6 times more likely to have a stroke event than non-pregnant women of the same age, the team reports. However, among women aged 35-44, stroke incidence among pregnant or postpartum women was comparable to that of non-pregnant women, at 33 per 100,000 and 31 per 100,000, respectively. Among women aged 45-55, stroke incidence was higher for non-pregnant women, at 73.7 per 100,000, compared with 46.9 per 100,000 for pregnant or postpartum women. Based on their findings, Dr. Miller and team say it is perhaps time to increase focus on identifying and reducing stroke risk among younger pregnant women.

Black Widow Spider Bite : Symptoms and Treatment

The black widow spider is considered the most venomous spider in North America. Because they thrive in temperate temperatures, black widows are most common in the south and western regions of the United States. People may find them in grape vineyards, outdoor toilets, or in other sheltered areas where debris builds up. These areas are perfect for the spiders to build webs and trap prey. The black widow is famous for its name, given because the female spiders are known to kill and eat males sometimes after mating. It is also known for its shiny black body. People can easily tell it apart from other spiders because the black widow has a reddish hourglass-shaped mark on its body. It can also have red and white stripes or spots on the upper part of its body. Although the black widow is feared for its venomous bite, it is less deadly than commonly believed. While it can be harmful, a black widow bite is rarely fatal.Black widow spiders are not often aggressive, and most commonly bite people out of self-defense. Some experts would go as far as to call the spider shy, as it would rather choose not bite humans. "They have no reason to bite us unless they're threatened," says Catherine Scott, an arachnologist at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada, in a Live Science interview . "We pose a much greater threat to them than they do to us." Simply coming into close contact with a black widow isn't necessarily dangerous. People are most at risk for getting bitten when they squeeze or pinch the spider's body, according to one recent study . This can sometimes happen by mistake. For example, accidentally sitting on or grabbing a black widow when reaching for something else. The best way to avoid a black widow's bite is to avoid touching the spider altogether. Although the researchers found that even repeated poking wasn't enough to cause a bite, it's a good idea not to touch the black widow with bare hands. Anyone who has to be in contact with a black widow should try letting the spider out on its own, or use a dull object to lead it outside. Children and older people are most at risk for death from a bite. These groups should avoid being in contact with black widows as much as possible. What does a black widow spider bite look like ? All spiders have hollow fangs to inject venom into their prey. Most spiders' fangs are not strong or long enough to break human skin. The black widow's fangs are different, however. If someone is bitten, they will have a visual clue. A black widow's bite will show up distinctly with two red puncture marks at the bite site. They may also see a red ring around a pale center surrounding the puncture marks. This creates a target-like appearance. People who are bitten may not realize it until about 30 to 40 minutes later. At this point, they experience some pain along with some redness or swelling at the bite site. Other spider bites may look similar to the black widow's bite, but there are some differences. The main difference is the visible puncture wounds where the fangs broke the skin. How the skin reacts to the venom is also unique. A brown recluse spider bite looks similar to a black widow's, although it looks more like a bull's-eye, with a blister in the center of a red ring and a pale ring around that. Symptoms of a black widow spider bite According to the American Association of Poison Control Centers , not all black widow bites are venomous. This is because the spider chooses when to inject venom and how much, if it does at all. The black widow saves its venom for when it feels its life is in danger. With a nonvenomous bite, people may experience little to no symptoms at all. The symptoms of a venomous bite develop around 2 hours after. This may the first sign of being bitten. Along with some pain and swelling at the bite site, the following are some other symptoms linked with a black widow's bite. They may appear in the 24 to 48 hours after the bite: Rash or itching Severe stomach pain Strong muscle cramps in the stomach, shoulders, and back Intense chest pain and tightness Swelling in the face Nausea and vomiting Headache Sweating Eyelid swelling Salivation Teary eyes Difficulty breathing Difficulty swallowing Increased blood pressure Seizures Numbness Risk factors and complicationsWhile a black widow's bite can be venomous, it's not meant to kill humans. As not all bites contain venom, there's a good chance that people will experience little to no health complications with a bite. Of the 1,866 black widow bites reported to the American Association of Poison Control Centers in 2013, only 14 of them resulted in severe symptoms. None resulted in death. However, a black widow's bite can cause death in these groups of people: Children Sick people Older people who are very sick or have pre-existing health conditions A black widow's bite can also cause complications for pregnant women, who may begin contractions and go into labor. What to do if bitten by a black widow spider Call emergency services If someone begins to experience any symptoms or notice they've been bitten, they should contact emergency medical services immediately. They may also be able to call a local poison center. The following information may be useful for doctors to know: The age and weight of the person who was bitten How they are feeling and whether or not they have any other health problems When the person was bitten Where on the body the bite is The type of spider that bit them Apply first aid If possible, it's a good idea to apply first aid at home while waiting for medical attention. People should take the following steps if they have the necessary materials to hand: Washing the bite site with soap and water Wrapping ice or an ice pack in a clean cloth, and applying it to the bite site If the area isn't getting proper blood flow, reducing the amount of time the ice is applied for Applying an antibiotic cream or lotion to the bite to help prevent an infection Elevating the limb to help prevent swelling if the bite is on an arm or leg Watching the symptoms for any worsening If possible, people should put the spider or any remnants of it in a secure container. This can be given to the healthcare professionals to help them. Treatment

Craving control: how food messes with your mind

There are strange forces at work behind our food desires. And unpicking the reasons why we reach for the wrong foods could lead to new ways to eat better By Chloe Lambert YOU’VE just had a hearty lunch, but the doughnuts next to your desk are winking at you. You can’t shake the thought of what the glazed, soft dough would taste like – and know that you won’t be able to get on with your day until you have it. On a basic level our relationship with food is simple – signals between the gut and the brain tell us when we’re hungry, and when we are full. But experience shows us that the drive to eat is much more tangled and irrational. Some of that is down to the reward hit – the feeling of pleasure, mediated by the brain’s reward centre – that we get from eating calorie-dense food like that glistening doughnut. Indeed, the effect of such foods has led some to liken our desire for them to drug addiction. But we now know the gut itself, and also the microbes inside it, manipulate what we crave, painting a much more complex picture of the forces that determine the way we see food. Cravings could even be contagious – literally. When it comes to food, we’re not as in control as we might think. “People think we have much more conscious control over our eating behaviour than we do. There’s a lot going on behind the scenes and it makes it very difficult to exert control on it,” says Tony Goldstone, an endocrinologist at Imperial College London. Even so, knowing about the forces that manipulate the way we think about food opens up new ways to regain control – for instance by retraining the brain or altering our gut flora.http://www.revenuehits.com/lps/pubref/?ref=@RH@G1W7NzGOOHmEUPwXR6-SMJYf6IhFRW6C

Hunger ' not linked to calorie intake '

From a review of more than 460 studies, researchers from the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom found little evidence of a link between how hungry we feel and the amount of calories we consume. Study leader Dr. Bernard Corfe, from the Molecular Gastroenterology Research Group at Sheffield, and team publish their results in the journal Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition . In the United States, more than 2 in 3 adults and around one third of children are considered overweight or obese. The primary cause of overweight and obesity is an energy imbalance - that is, more calories are consumed than the body uses, or "burns," which results in excess weight. As such, eating a healthy diet and sticking to the daily recommended calorie intake - around 1,600-2,400 calories for women and 2,000-3,000 calories for men, depending on physical activity - are considered key for weight loss and maintenance. Few studies found a link between appetite and calorie intake Appealing to the the desire of many individuals to lose weight through dietary changes are prepackaged meals that claim to have appetite-modifying properties that keep us sated for longer, reducing the need to reach for the unhealthy snacks when hunger bites. The new study , however, indicates there is no link between appetite and calorie intake, suggesting some food manufacturers may need to rethink their claims. Dr. Corfe and colleagues came to their conclusion after conducting a review of 462 studies that assessed both appetite and calorie consumption. The researchers found that only 6 percent of the studies reviewed made a direct statistical comparison between appetite and calorie intake, and only half of these studies found that self-reported appetite correlated with calorie consumption. The team says these findings indicate that how hungry we feel has no effect on the amount of calories we consume - something that food manufacturers should take into consideration.

Early return to play after concussion may be harmful for young athletes

The study was carried out at the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children in Plano, Texas, by Dr. Shane M. Miller, and Meagan Sabatino, senior clinical research coordinator. According to the authors, this is the largest study to date that examines return-to-play (RTP) patterns in young athletes with concussions . The research analyzed 185 patients over a 10-month period in 2014. Participants were aged between 7-18 years and were all treated for concussion. The study found that over a third of the participants ignored medical advice and returned to play on the same day. Out of 185 patients, 71 resumed physical activity, making up 38 percent of the participants. The risks of same day return to play Several regulating bodies warn against the dangers of resuming physical activity too soon. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Concussion Policy and Legislation instructs that institutions prevent young players from resuming activity for "at least the remainder of that calendar day." The NCAA also mandates that relevant institutions only allow athletes to return to play on the same day if they get medical clearance from their physician. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) define concussions as "a type of traumatic brain injury caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head or by a hit to the body that causes the head and brain to move rapidly back and forth." They also provide a full list of signs and symptoms. Once a patient has been diagnosed with a concussion, doctors recommend physical and mental rest. Most concussions are cleared in 7-10 days, and in sports-related concussions, the RTP should be done gradually. Guidelines from the NCAA recommend increasing physical activities progressively, under the supervision of a physician. As previous research indicates, premature RTP can lead to greater injuries, which can even prove fatal. If players experience a second jolt before the effects of the first concussion have entirely dissipated, there is the risk of a so-called second-impact syndrome. A second impact can cause a failure in the brain's ability to regulate its own blood supply, which can lead to a herniation of the brain that is often fatal. Premature RTP particularly risky for children and adolescents Studies have pointed out the dangers of resuming athletic activity on the same day as the injury was produced, especially in young athletes. As reported in the Consensus Statement of the 4th International Conference on Concussion in Sport, there is a higher risk of developing neuropsychological deficits in adolescent athletes who return to play on the same day. Sometimes these deficits do not have immediate symptoms or may go completely unnoticed. Young athletes should rest for longer periods than adults, even if they do not have any symptoms. The Consensus report is very clear in prohibiting young athletes from returning on the same day, stating: "It is not appropriate for a child or adolescent athlete with a concussion to RTP on the same day as the injury, regardless of the level of athletic performance." Because youth athletes have specific risks of developing post-injury complications, they need longer to recover. Age-specific risks include diffuse cerebral swelling, which calls for a particularly gradual RTP procedure. In the study conducted by Miller and Sabatino, patients who resumed physical activity too soon reported more severe symptoms than immediately after being injured. After returning on the same day, they were more likely to experience nausea, dizziness, balance problems, and other symptoms commonly associated with brain injury. Researchers urge industry professionals to protect young athletes The government has made several attempts to educate sports industry professionals on concussion-related problems. Policies and state mandated training programs such as CDC's Heads Up program, or the information campaign launched by the American Academy of Neurology are a case in point. However,

factsApproximately 16 Canadians have their appendices removed, when not required, every day. Sumerians (from 5000 BC) thought that the liver made blood and the heart was the center of thought. Men have more blood than women. 1.5 gallons for men versus 0.875 gallons for women. The first Band-Aid Brand Adhesive Bandages were three inches wide and eighteen inches long. You made your own bandage by cutting off as much as you needed. The human brain stops growing at the age of 18. In 1977, a 13 year old child found a tooth growing out of his left foot. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 18 million courses of antibiotics are prescribed for the common cold in the United States per year. Research shows that colds are caused by viruses. 50 million unnecessary antibiotics are prescribed for viral respiratory infections. It takes an interaction of 72 different muscles to produce human speech. The first known heart medicine was discovered in an English garden. In 1799, physician John Ferriar noted the effect of dried leaves of the common plant, digitalis purpurea, on heart action. Still used in heart medications, digitalis slows the pulse and increases the force of heart contractions and the amount of blood pumped per heartbeat.

Approximately 16 Canadians have their appendices removed, when not required, every day. Sumerians (from 5000 BC) thought that the liver made blood and the heart was the center of thought. Men have more blood than women. 1.5 gallons for men versus 0.875 gallons for women. The first Band-Aid Brand Adhesive Bandages were three inches wide and eighteen inches long. You made your own bandage by cutting off as much as you needed. The human brain stops growing at the age of 18. In 1977, a 13 year old child found a tooth growing out of his left foot. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 18 million courses of antibiotics are prescribed for the common cold in the United States per year. Research shows that colds are caused by viruses. 50 million unnecessary antibiotics are prescribed for viral respiratory infections. It takes an interaction of 72 different muscles to produce human speech. The first known heart medicine was discovered in an English garden. In 1799, physician John Ferriar noted the effect of dried leaves of the common plant, digitalis purpurea, on heart action. Still used in heart medications, digitalis slows the pulse and increases the force of heart contractions and the amount of blood pumped per heartbeat.

Daily habits that sabotage your peace of mind

Be sure to get plenty of sleep, a nutritious breakfast, some exercise
Take a few moments to acknowledge and accept your stress
I used to wake up each morning and, before I'd even brushed my teeth, I would check my email. This often meant that the first thing I saw every day was a frantic message from my boss. Eventually, I realized I had to set a rule: I wouldn't check my email until after I finished my morning workout. This small change made a huge difference in my stress levels. Even if I still had to deal with anxiety-provoking e-mails a little later in the day, at least I had a solid hour or more in the morning where I was blissfully -- and willfully -- ignorant.

"[Phones] take these more stressful environments and put them into our homes and our bedrooms," says John Torous, MD, co-director of the digital psychiatry program at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center at Harvard Medical School. "I think being cognizant of the stressors tied to your phone and how you're letting them into your life is very important."
Turns out, checking your phone first thing in the morning isn't the only habit that could be doing a number on your psyche. We spoke with a few experts, who gave us insight into other seemingly harmless practices that could be disrupting your peace of mind.
6 Scenarios That Stress You Out But Shouldn't
7 Sneaky Things Making You Stressed Out
1. Grabbing a donut on the way to work in the morning.Most people don't give much thought about what to eat for breakfast, says Shanna Levine, MD, instructor of internal medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. But you should. "If your main fuels are simple carbohydrates ... that's not an efficient energy source," she says. "You'll find that you become hungry very quickly and feel tired much more quickly. If you don't have enough energy to get through the day, it makes it difficult to keep a healthy mindset." On the other hand, if you eat a nutritious breakfast, you'll avoid the physical and mental crash that can come with a greasy sandwich or sugary waffle.
The fix: Choose something high in protein and healthy fats, recommends Levine. A smoothie with fruits, veggies and nut butter or an egg sandwich with avocado will do the trick. Also, make sure to drink plenty of water.
7 High-Protein Breakfast Hacks (No Stove Required)
2. Keeping your to-do list in your head.
Trying to remember everything you have to do for the day can leave you stressed out, whether you realize it or not. "That's certainly taking up brain space, which takes up more energy," says Torous. "You can really offload it onto paper and it can be a kind of extension of your brain." Writing things down seems to give most people temporary relief.
The fix: If you don't want to buy yourself a notebook that serves as your to-do list (which definitely works), an app like Evernote can give you an electronic place to keep track of all your tasks.3. Snapchatting and texting 24/7.
Snapchat, Instagram and Facebook make it seem easier to keep in touch with friends. But a phone or computer is no substitute for human interaction. "You can feel very engaged in online or computer-based social networks, but having real human contact with people is even more important," says Torous. "Sometimes you'll get tricked into thinking, 'I have this network of Facebook friends and Twitter friends,' but it's crucial to cultivate relationships offline, as well."
The fix: Schedule a few phone-free activities you can look forward to each week. That way, you'll have regular opportunities to disconnect and engage with friends or family. Even better, the incentives will help break up the tedium that can often come with the workweek, says Levine.
4. Going straight from your car to the couch.
There's a reason that people talk about a "runner's high." Exercise releases endorphins that can energize you and improve your mood, says Levine. "Evidence shows that exercise can be one of the most effective treatments for anything in healthcare, be it mental or physical," adds Torous. (A 2016 study suggests it could help treat depression, specifically.)

amazing body facts

1. The average red blood cell lives for 120 days.
2. There are 2.5 trillion (give or take) of red blood cells in your body at any moment. To maintain this number, about two and a half million new ones need to be produced every second by your bone marrow.That's like a new population of the city of Toronto every second.
3. Considering all the tissues and cells in your body, 25 million new cells are being produced each second. That's a little less than the population of Canada - every second !
4. A red blood cell can circumnavigate your body in under 20 seconds.
5. Nerve Impulses travel at over 400 km/hr (249 mi/hr).
6. A sneeze generates a wind of 166 km/hr (100 mi/hr), and a cough moves out at 100 km/hr (60 mi/hr).
7. Our heart beats around 100,00 times every day or about 30 million times in a year.
8. Our blood is on a 60,000-mile journey per day.
9. Our eyes can distinguish up to ten million colour surfaces and take in more information than the largest telescope known to man.
10. Our lungs inhale over two million litres of air every day, without even thinking. Their surface area is large enough to cover one side of a tennis court.
11. We give birth to over 200 billion red cells every day.
12. When we touch something, we send a message to our brain at 124 mph
13. We exercise at least 36 muscles when we smile.
14. We are about 70 percent water.
15. We make around 1 to 1.6 litres of saliva a day.
16. Our nose is our personal air-conditioning system: it warms cold air, cools hot air and filters impurities.
17. In one square inch of our hand we have nine feet of blood vessels, 600 pain sensors, 9000 nerve endings, 36 heat sensors and 75 pressure sensors.
18. We have copper, zinc, cobalt, calcium, manganese, phosphates, nickel and silicon in our bodies.
19. It is believed that the main purpose of eyebrows is to keep sweat out of the eyes.
20. A person can expect to breathe in about 45 pounds of dust over his/her lifetime.

'Marijuana receptor ' uncovered in new study

In a study published in the journal Cell, researchers reveal how they have uncovered the structure of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) - a receptor that is present on the surface of many nerve cells in the brain.
Using the information to create a 3-D model of the receptor, study co-author Raymond Stevens - a professor of Biological Science and Chemistry at the University of Southern California - and team have shed light on how THC and synthetic cannabinoids bind to the receptor.
Stevens and colleagues say their discovery could enhance the development of new marijuana-derived medications, as well as help to better understand the risks of marijuana use.
While marijuana remains the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, its legalization for both medicinal and recreational purposes is widening.
With use of the drug projected to increase as a result, researchers believe it is more important than ever to fully understand how the active components of marijuana work in the body.
Unraveling the CB 1 receptor
The CB1 receptor is the main target of THC and synthetic cannabinoids - man-made substances that mimic the effects of THC - so the research team focused on finding out more about the structure of this receptor and how it works with specific molecules.
"[...] we need to understand how molecules like THC and the synthetic cannabinoids interact with the receptor, especially since we're starting to see people show up in emergency rooms when they use synthetic cannabinoids," notes Stevens.
The researchers synthesized AM6538 - a molecule known to tightly bind to and stabilize CB1 - and applied it to the CB1 receptor, which enabled them to
determine the receptor's structure.
By creating a 3-D model of CB1, the team was able to get a more detailed understanding of how THC and synthetic cannabinoids work with the receptor to produce their mind-altering effects.
The researchers say their discovery could aid marijuana-derived drug development, and perhaps solve some of the problems that have already arisen with such medications.
As an example, the team points to a marijuana-based medication that was previously developed for the treatment of obesity; while it was effective against weight gain, the molecules in the drugs were found to trigger depression ,
anxiety, and suicidal thoughts.

'Marijuana receptor ' uncovered in new study

In a study published in the journal Cell, researchers reveal how they have uncovered the structure of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) - a receptor that is present on the surface of many nerve cells in the brain.
Using the information to create a 3-D model of the receptor, study co-author Raymond Stevens - a professor of Biological Science and Chemistry at the University of Southern California - and team have shed light on how THC and synthetic cannabinoids bind to the receptor.
Stevens and colleagues say their discovery could enhance the development of new marijuana-derived medications, as well as help to better understand the risks of marijuana use.
While marijuana remains the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, its legalization for both medicinal and recreational purposes is widening.
With use of the drug projected to increase as a result, researchers believe it is more important than ever to fully understand how the active components of marijuana work in the body.
Unraveling the CB 1 receptor
The CB1 receptor is the main target of THC and synthetic cannabinoids - man-made substances that mimic the effects of THC - so the research team focused on finding out more about the structure of this receptor and how it works with specific molecules.
"[...] we need to understand how molecules like THC and the synthetic cannabinoids interact with the receptor, especially since we're starting to see people show up in emergency rooms when they use synthetic cannabinoids," notes Stevens.
The researchers synthesized AM6538 - a molecule known to tightly bind to and stabilize CB1 - and applied it to the CB1 receptor, which enabled them to
determine the receptor's structure.
By creating a 3-D model of CB1, the team was able to get a more detailed understanding of how THC and synthetic cannabinoids work with the receptor to produce their mind-altering effects.
The researchers say their discovery could aid marijuana-derived drug development, and perhaps solve some of the problems that have already arisen with such medications.
As an example, the team points to a marijuana-based medication that was previously developed for the treatment of obesity; while it was effective against weight gain, the molecules in the drugs were found to trigger depression ,
anxiety, and suicidal thoughts.

eggs and infertility

Eggs made from skin cells in lab could herald end of infertility Dr

Yorgos Nikas/Science Photo Library An eight-day-old human embryo More on these topics: fertility reproduction stem cells Fertile, mature eggs have been created from mouse skin cells in the lab for the first time. They have even been fertilised to create seemingly healthy pups. The feat suggests it is only a matter of time before the same is achieved in humans, opening up the possibility of new fertility treatments , and the potential for two men to genetically father a baby together. Katsuhiko Hayashi at Kyushu University in Fukuoka, Japan, and his team have been trying to understand how eggs develop by attempting to recreate the process in the lab. The group had some success in 2012, by managing to turn mouse skin cells into primary germ cells – a kind of immature egg cell in its early stages of development. However, these cells had to be re-implanted into a mouse’s ovary to finish developing. Now, the team has made egg cells mature fully in the lab. All the way Hayashi’s group started with female brown mice about 10 weeks old – about 30 years old in terms of human ageing. The team then took cells from the tails of the mice. Using a well-established technique , the researchers turned these cells into induced pluripotent stem cells – cells that can continue to divide, and can form various other types of cell. By placing these cells in a brew of specially selected compounds, the team encouraged them to become immature egg cells. But to fully mature, the cells needed help, says Hayashi – tissue taken from the ovaries of mouse fetuses. Placing a tiny clump of fetal ovarian cells among the immature egg cells in the dish let them grow into adult, mature eggs. In this way, they generated 4048 mature eggs. To see if these could produce babies, they then fertilised some using sperm from other brown mice. The fertilised eggs were then implanted in the uteruses of albino female mice in batches of around 35 per mouse. Of the 1348 embryos they made, eight pups were born. “It is a tremendous advance,” says Azim Surani at the University of Cambridge. “The idea that you can start with a skin cell and make viable eggs in culture is quite amazing.” He hopes the technique can help us understand how eggs develop, and learn more about the effects of genetic mutations on fertility. Eradicating infertility It is likely to be only a matter of time until the same feat is achieved with human cells. “From a technical point of view it could work,” says Hayashi. “If we could make human eggs, it could be a very powerful tool for curing infertility.” “If we can apply this to humans, we could almost eradicate infertility,” says Zev Rosenwaks at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York. “I’m extremely excited about this.” Jacob Hanna at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel, thinks this could be possible within five years. “You would have the unlimited ability to make eggs,” says Hanna, who is part of a team that has already managed to make immature egg cells from human skin cells. If it works in people, the technique could be used to create eggs for women who have become less fertile with age or those who have low numbers of eggs , enabling them to have IVF. Women whose ovaries have been damaged, for example by cancer treatment, could also benefit. The approach could also theoretically be used to create egg cells from male skin cells, raising the prospect of babies with two genetic fathers. “I get one email a day from same sex couples asking me about this,” says Hanna. “Regulatory bodies would need to discuss this, but I fully support the idea.” Two-father babies Creating egg cells from male cells is more of a technical challenge. Hayashi’s team has been trying to produce eggs from cells taken from the tails of male mice, but they tend to die at about the time of the crucial cell divisions that share out chromosomes in the right numbers among developing sex cells. This might be bec

How Does Prostate Cancer Affect Sex ?

Cancer of the prostate gland is a disease in which cells of the prostate tissue divide without control, forming a tumor , or lump.
Prostate cancer is the most common non-skin cancer in men in the United States. There are an estimated quarter of a million new cases in the U.S. every year, according to information from the Cleveland Clinic and other sources. Tens of thousands of men die from the disease annually in the U.S.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most men who get prostate cancer are older than 65 years and do not die from it.
When a tumor of the prostate grows large enough, it can block the urethra, the outlet tube for urine.
Prostate cancer often produces no symptoms. When they do occur, they may include:
Weak or intermittent urine stream
Dribbling of urine
A feeling of having not emptied the bladder fully or having to strain
Blood in the urine
Cancerous cells from a prostate tumor can spread to other sites. This is rare, however, as most prostate cancers are slow-growing and do not spread.
The most common, slow tumors are known as acinar adenocarcinomas, and account for 9 in every 10 cases of prostate cancer, say Cancer Research UK.
Prostate cancer almost always occurs later in life. According to the Cleveland Clinic, up to 80 percent of men older than 80 years show signs of the disease after death. Many men have prostate cancer but die without a diagnosis.
Prostate cancer cannot be passed from one person to another, including via sex. It is not a contagious disease. It is not a
sexually transmitted disease .
Does prostate cancer cause sex problems ?
Prostate cancer itself does not usually cause problems with sex for most men with the disease.
Most symptoms of prostate cancer relate to urine output. This is because the prostate gland begins to obstruct the urethra, the tube that carries urine out of the body. As well as changes to urine flow, there can be blood in the urine.
Many men with prostate cancer do not get any symptoms in the early stages of the disease. The first time many people know that they have prostate cancer is after other symptoms have been caused by the cancer spreading - to the bone, for example.
It is uncommon, but some men with prostate cancer do have erection difficulties related to the disease itself.
How does treatment for prostate cancer affect sex?
Prostate cancer itself does not usually cause problems with sex. However, it can be usual for men to feel depressed when going through cancer diagnosis and treatment.Worries about prostate cancer may mean less interest in sex or relationship stress . These problems should improve, and there can be support for psychological problems surrounding cancer.
There are many treatment options for prostate cancer, including just monitoring. Many men choose to monitor for any development that may need later active treatment. This approach for very slow-growing prostate cancer can be called "watchful waiting" or "active surveillance." It does not cause sex problems.
Active treatment of prostate cancer can lead to problems with sex. These therapies include:
Surgery
Radiation therapy
Hormone therapy
Nerve supplies that help to control men's erections run close to the prostate gland. This raises the challenge of protecting the nerves from damage during treatment of the nearby prostate gland.
Surgery to completely remove the prostate gland is a risk for erectile dysfunction because of the potential nerve damage. This surgery is known as total prostatectomy or radical prostatectomy.
Radical prostatectomy is not appropriate for all men with prostate cancer. It is typically reserved for men who have more aggressive prostate cancer that is likely to grow or spread, and younger men.
The prostate gland can be surgically removed in a number of ways:
Open surgery - the surgeon creates an opening in the belly or the area between the testicles and the anus
Keyhole surgery - the prostate is removed via a small wound, and the surgeon is guided by a camera
Both options are similarly effective. Keyhole surgery may mean less bleeding and less time in the hospital than open surgery.
Keyhole surgery to remove the prostate gland can also be done with the help of a robot. Also known as da Vinci surgery, this is a more recent development in keyhole surgery for prostate cancer.
Nerve-sparing prostatectomy aims to preserve the nerves that control erections. This type of prostate cancer treatment reduces the risk of erectile dysfunction, but the risk of not fully treating the cancer also needs to be considered. There is a risk that some tumor may be left in place.
Nerve-sparing surgery is not possible in all cases. It depends on where and how severe the prostate cancer is.Biopsies are taken as part of any prostatectomy, and this enables the tissue to be examined in a lab. Biopsies may help to work out if cancer is only on one side of the prostate. If it is, the nerves on the other side may be spared.
Surgery is the riskiest treatment in terms of erectile dysfunction. Other options are also risky, including cryotherapy, in which probes are used to freeze prostate cancer cells.
Some decrease in erectile function can follow radiation therapy of the prostate. Erectile dysfunction may be less of a risk with the more focused radiation therapy called brachytherapy. This treatment involves implanting radioactive seeds into the prostate.
Hormonal therapy also carries the risk of erection problems, can cause loss of libido, and affect fertility. Treatments can also involve removing the testicles and antiandrogen drugs.
Fertility problems caused by prostate cancer treatment
Doctors may offer men the chance to store sperm before prostate treatment. Sperm banking is an option because different cancer treatments run the risk of making men infertile .
Not being able to father children may result from radiation therapy, surgery, or drug treatment.
If infertility does result from treatment and the man wishes to start a family, stored sperm can be used in artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization.
Managing sex life with prostate cancer
If erectile dysfunction does occur after prostate cancer treatment, a number of options are available to help with returning to normal sex function.
A loss of interest in sex may occur due to fatigue and other problems linked to prostate cancer and treatment. This can improve or disappear over time.
The number of men affected persistently by erectile dysfunction after prostate cancer surgery varies widely. Factors affecting likelihood include age and health before the operation.

Kidney cancer drug also attacks other cancers

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The study, led by researchers from the Department of Clinical Science at the University of Bergen in Norway, is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and there is a comment on the discovery of the "useful off-target effect" in the journal
Science Signaling.
The discovery comes from a growing field of research called drug repurposing,which investigates whether drugs already approved to treat one disease or condition are effective and safe for treating other diseases.
The field is growing for a number of reasons. One is that it takes a lot of time, effort, and cost to develop a brand new drug, often more than 14 years. Drug repurposing can cut these significantly.
Many compounds approved for other uses have already been tested in humans, so detailed knowledge about their safety and how they affect the body at different doses is already available. This speeds up their journey to clinical use through clinical trials and review by drug regulators.
Another reason that drug repurposing is attracting more attention in drug development is because of increasing knowledge about how diseases arise and progress at the molecular level. This provides unprecedented opportunities for studying compounds that target molecular pathways - including those in drugs that are already approved for clinical use.
Team mapped 500 known drugs
The researchers at the University of Bergen, led by Prof. Karl-Henning Kalland, have for many years been searching for compounds that block the chemical signals that drive the growth and spread of cancer cells.
It was during a particular search - where they mapped the chemistry of 500 known drugs - that they discovered a previously unknown effect of the kidney cancer drug axitinib.
Axitinib is approved for use as a "tyrosine kinase inhibitor" that blocks the triggering of angiogenesis - the generation of new blood vessels, which tumors rely on to grow.
The new study shows that axitinib has a useful off-target effect in that it also knocks out a type of "Wnt signaling" cell communication pathway that encourages cells to mutate.
As around 90 percent of all cancer arises from mutations in cells, the researchers believe axitinib could be effective against several forms of the disease, including breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers .
Potential for combining with immunotherapy
The team also discovered a handful of other promising candidates, which they are testing further and hope to report on soon.
The off-target effects - such as blocking signaling mechanisms - do not necessarily mean these compounds will be enough to treat the particular cancer, as Prof. Kalland explains:

Hypertension in children, teens linked to poorer cognitive skills

While high blood pressure, or

hypertension , is perceived by some people to be a condition that only affects adults, studies have shown that it affects around 3-4 percent of children and adolescents aged 8-17 years.

A child's blood pressure is calculated differently to that of adults; in general, a

child is considered to have hypertension if their blood pressure is the same as or higher than 95 percent of children of the same age, sex, and height.

Similar to adults, children who are overweight or obese, have a poor diet and lack of exercise, a family history of hypertension, or who have certain medical conditions - such as heart and kidney disease - are at increased risk of high blood pressure.

According to study co-author Dr. Marc B. Lande, of the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York, and colleagues, previous research has shown that high blood pressure can interfere with adult's cognitive functioning, but there has been little research on whether this association rings true for children.

Hypertension linked to poorer performance on cognitive tests

For their study , the research assessed the cognitive test results of 150 children aged 10-18 years. Of these, 75 had newly diagnosed hypertension, while 75 had normal blood pressure.

The team excluded subjects from the analysis if they had other conditions known to impact cognitive skills, such as learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disorders.

"We wanted to make sure that if we found differences between children with and without hypertension, it was likely associated with the hypertension itself, not any of these other factors," explains Dr. Lande.

Compared with children and adolescents who had normal blood pressure, those with high blood pressure performed worse on tests of visual skills, visual and verbal memory, and processing speed, the team reports.

What is more, the researchers found that high blood pressure was more common among children with sleep problems, supporting previous research suggesting poor sleep can impair cognitive functioning.

Findings ' should not be a cause for concern'

The team stresses that the differences in cognitive skills between children and adolescents with and without hypertension were small, and that the cognitive test scores of both groups were within the normal range.

As such, the researchers say their results indicate that high blood pressure might lead to poorer cognitive performance in youth, rather than cognitive impairment.

New insights into how drug -resistant bacteria build their defences

Improved understanding of the way in which hundreds of different types of disease-causing bacteria operate could help pave the way to tackling their effects, according to leading scientists.
Researchers at the University of Leeds led by Professors Sheena Radford and Neil Ranson, have uncovered new information about the operation of a protein complex called BAM, the beta-barrel assembly machinery, which helps insert other bacterial proteins into the bacteria's outermost protective layer.
In order for bacteria to spread diseases, they need to form an outer membrane, or they cannot survive in the harsh environments in which they live.
The BAM complex plays a crucial role in this process, facilitating the insertion of a myriad of proteins into this layer that are required for it to work properly as a barrier, protecting the bug from attack by
antibiotics.
With their new results, researchers in the Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology say it may be possible to design drugs which could target the BAM complex to stop it operating.
Professor Ranson said: "This is a complex molecular machine involved in keeping bacteria alive, and we know that mutations in it are lethal to the bacteria. Some beautiful work by other labs has shown that BAM exists in two different shapes - an open and closed form - but the open form seemed to require part of the complex to fall apart.
"Our work shows for the first time the intact BAM complex in this open state. Now we have been able to see the intact structure in this way, it gives us new clues about how BAM works and about how to develop ways to stop it functioning."
Professor Radford, Director of the University's Astbury Centre said "If BAM cannot do its job, bacteria won't survive and they would be prevented from spreading diseases. The challenge, now we understand more about how BAM works, is for the scientific community to develop drugs which can target it and replenish our shrinking arsenal of antibiotics to treat bacterial infections."
The new understanding will contribute to ongoing work to find new ways to kill bacteria which have become increasingly resistant to drugs developed in 20th century.
Antibacterial resistance has become a major issue in recent years, with many drugs developed to combat infections from whooping cough to salmonella, and a wide range of hospital-acquired infections, losing their effectiveness.
Previously scientists have used X-ray crystallography, which has been the mainstay of structural discovery for several decades, to show that the barrel-shaped BAM complex could exist in both open and closed forms.
The BAM complex sits within the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and inserts other proteins into the membrane where they are needed to form a functional protective layer. How this happens is not properly understood, but the change in shape is thought to be essential to allow its client proteins to enter the membrane.
Using highly advanced electron microscopes, Professors Radford and Ranson now have seen the structure of BAM in an open state by rapidly freezing the complex from solution.
Previous structures of the open state all lacked one of the five proteins that make the full BAM complex, called BamB. The new results show that opening of the BAM barrel can happen with BamB there, and this changes the way scientists think about how BAM might work.